Science and Globalisation: Towards a changing notion of relationships between research and society

Reflections on Towards lnterdisciplinarity: 

"A Panel Discussion on Science and Globalisation"

 held in JNU on 25 November 2011

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In a recently published book "Civilization: The West and the Rest", Historian Niall Ferguson tries to touch upon the root causes behind why western societies flourished and others did not. Few days before when Justice Katju was speaking on the eve of Nehru Memorial Lecture in JNU he appreciated to the great length the ancient heritage of Sanskrit and Urdu language embodying vast resources of rational scientific knowledge and also great literary potential. He appealed to the students present there to investigate the famous Joseph Needham question further asking why India and China did not have scientific-industrial revolution in 17th-18th century even though historically these countries were ahead in many areas of science-technology in medieval times. 

So, let us come back to the six reasons cited by Ferguson. Those are: 1.Competition, 2.Scientific Revolution, 3.Property Rights, 4.Modern Medicine, 5.Consumer Society and 6.The Work Ethic. According to Ferguson these "killer applications" were responsible for the emergence of western world in its current shape where they enjoy basic facilities of health, education and livelihood supported by formal/informal institutions of knowledge creation, diffusion and application of it. Further he says, these reasons were also responsible for the economic prosperity and thus the ability of western world to influence the modern institutions which regulate trade, research and development and international development agenda thus to leverage the benefits for the western world. Ferguson then says that in recent times developing world is downloading these applications much faster so as to catch up with the developed world.  Recent talk by Prof. Avijit Pathak who spoke about multiple modernities in India, concluded by saying that universities will be playing great role in the next wave of modenrity in the future of India by hinting that universities are one of the few places where secular, liberal and argumentative debate helps to unravel the complexities of not only multidisciplinary knowledges but also of the life.

In this context the panel discussion on the topic "Science and Globalization" touched the right nerve. When we are observing the huge influx and out flux of skilled communities across the borders, the changing nature of investments in R&D by multinationals in developing countries and the globalisation of higher education witnessing new transformation, one can sense the deep connection this panel discussion has to the unravelling of whole dynamics of the "Science and Globalization".

The discussion recognised that much of the scientific research is already globalised because it would not be a matter of conflict of opinion as far as consensus about basic principles of sciences is concerned. We are witnessing the globalization of economics compared to globalization of politics and science and technology. The much of the post-doctoral research is already globalized. Now it seems to be the case of globalization for doctoral, undergraduate and further for secondary education. Due to the invention of internet it is possible now to realize greater degree of collaboration between different institutions, countries and disciplines. The competition in the research and development in academic set up also enabled visualization of the possibilities for the new path breaking research.

Other point of view about globalisation focussed its enquiry about the social/cultural situations in which the development of science and technology takes place. The colonial/imperial history was largely responsible for the creation of institutions and practices, which were responsible for the development of S&T system in the developing countries. Historically Wilhelm von Humboldt inspired from Friedrich Schleiermacher’s liberal ideas about the importance of freedom, seminars, and laboratories founded Berlin University. This
model focussed on the goal to demonstrate the process of the discovery of knowledge and to teach students to “take account of fundamental laws of science in all their thinking.” Thus, seminars and laboratories started to evolve. Humboldt envisioned the university education as a student-centred activity of research.

Then the big thrust for the fundamental science in the western world was emphasised by the Vennever Bush`s 'Science: The Endless Frontier', a report which laid the foundation of massive investment in public funded research and thus paving the way for spillovers necessary for application of knowledge. The critical enquiries by Karl Popper, Thomas Kuhn and Robert Merton largely contributed to the understanding about how science progresses. The basic principles elucidated by Merton were Communism, Universalism, Disinterestedness, Organised skepticism. The Haldane principle which believes government should keep its nose out of decisions about research projects or programmes largely promoting the autonomy of the research and development and the 'Republic of Science' theorised by Michel Polyani was largely responsible for viewing research and development as an autonomous enterprise.

In particular reference with India, Humboldt model remains largely unrealized. In India fundamental research largely remained with the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research and other autonomous bodies outside the university system. This vacuum of fundamental research was also complemented by the fact that 94 % of the research and development funding was concentrated in the few establishments of government namely defense, atomic energy and agriculture institutions. While the synergy between teaching and research still remains to be strengthened in Indian universities it is also true that till recently there is very lopsided compared to the needs of culture where excellence is nurtured and resources are needed to promote that culture.

One of the significant issue out of this discussion was about commodification of the knowledge, freedom of enquiry and the societal relevance of the science-technology initiatives. Lot of issues of globalization are directly related to the economic aspects namely the product driven research, intellectual property protection of the knowledge and monopolization of the profits leading to the domination of access-benefit sharing mechanisms. The historic context of development of recombinant DNA technology and the cases which lead to the approval of human intervention in life systems so as to allow patenting anything under the sun (Diamond Vs Chakravarthy, Harvard Onco-mouse case) were largely responsible for the establishment of the international regimes like TRIPS, WIPO.  The success of intellectual property rights has been overestimated especially to realise invention, innovation, technology transfer, foreign direct investment, disclosure of knowledge.  

 The changing role of universities is also necessary to understand the 'globalisation' angle being discussed here. The role of universities is changing from Mode 1 to mode 2 as argues by Gibbons and as conveyed by John Ziman the scientific knowledge being produced in the university system is transforming from that of 'reliable' towards that of 'robust' forms.  The historic peer review method where experts or scholars from particular knowledge discipline is actually under dynamic transformation. The people outside the peer review group are increasingly influencing the ‘construction of knowledges”.

Let me refer to an interview published in Nature. This interview report asks the question: "Is the model of research-intensive universities still valid at the beginning of the twenty-first century?” It says: "Outside the academic realm, the world has also changed markedly since von Humboldt's time. The ‘advanced’ nations have been moving away from the manufacturing-based economies that sustained them throughout the twentieth century, towards so-called knowledge-based economies that rely heavily on scientific research and a trained workforce. As such, these nations no longer compete for industrial capacity or access to natural resources, but rather for skilled workers, intellectual property and knowledge." Another respondent in this report says, "Research universities should fight the trend of becoming more and more specialized, and instead try to integrate undergraduate teaching and research to create a true community of scholars."(The future of research universities, EMBO reports (2007) 8, 804 - 810 * doi:10.1038/sj.embor.7401052 * http://www.nature.com/embor/journal/v8/n9/full/7401052.html)

 Another respondent says, “In many disciplines, the boundaries between basic and applied research are blurred. It is more of a continuum and one should think more in terms of short-term and long-term research. Hence, universities are moving toward supporting this continuum. With regard to intellectual property, universities and their faculty should have incentives to commercialize their discoveries and in doing so support economic development and job creation. However, universities should not become ‘greedy’ and they must realize that the intellectual property they generate is often only a small contribution to a product. They must learn to work more cooperatively with corporations on intellectual property creation, ownership and commercialization.”

The processes and goal of democratising science, issues of citizen science, hegemony and violence created by techno-scientific establishments were mentioned when the social aspects of this globalization of science were discussed.  In this kind of interdisciplinary interaction, some of the representatives expressed their dismay about their perception that science is largely being viewed from very negative perspective, which does not appreciate their efforts aimed at development. Also, lack of the meaningful institutions having capable people who can communicate the process of scientific discovery and people who can comment, write and mobilize debate about the science-technology policy in the country, the creation of environment where the challenges ahead of basic research can be deliberated upon by appreciating the ethos of science were also expressed by some members of the audience.

Eventually before leaving this particular report sharing the analysis of founding definition of globalisation in contemporary times given at (http://www.infed.org/biblio/globalization.htm)

“Globalization involves the diffusion of ideas, practices and technologies. It is something more than internationalization and universalization. It isn't simply modernization or westernization. It is certainly isn't just the liberalization of markets. Anthony Giddens has described globalization as 'the intensification of worldwide social relations which link distant localities in such a way that local happenings are shaped by events occurring many miles away and vice versa'. This involves a change in the way we understand geography and experience localness. As well as offering opportunity it brings with considerable risks linked, for example, to technological change.”

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Imagination reaches out repeatedly trying to achieve some higher level of understanding, until suddenly I find myself momentarily alone before one new corner of nature's pattern of beauty and true majesty revealed. That was my reward.---RICHARD FEYNMAN, 1965

Politics of Climate Change and Nuclear Energy in Changing Politics of Germany

While the world is vigorously debating the future of nuclear energy, the negotiations about the climate change have also arrived at crucial stage when world leaders will meet in Durban. This will be crucial juncture in the line of negotiations after Cancun because it will unfold new story in the already well established boxing ring of unequal level playing field.

Cancun round changed the character of the developing countries. Developing countries mitigation targets were thus delinked from multilateral legally binding agreements. Now the Kyoto protocol seems to be out of question. There seems to be no compliance mechanism being enforced in future negotiations and implementation. Cancun has marked demise of Kyoto protocol and even country like Japan where it was signed is reluctant to go ahead with its implementation. Now the mitigation targets have been annexed. After departure of Kyoto protocol we will be left with the market mechanism of the voluntary mitigation strategies. So, once again we have arrived where we have started.

In the context of financial crisis it seems difficult that west will proceed with its pledge to provide 100 million dollars to developing countries for mitigation. Official development assistance has been diverted in the name of climate change fund. Also there are other issues of intellectual property, technology transfer etc.

Debate about nuclear energy is about debates about future energy mix. The societal estimation or risks are at the centre stage whenever the ethical aspects of any technology are discussed. Legal, moral and technical aspects dominate this discussion. When German Ethics Commission recommended to German government about phasing out of nuclear energy from their country by 2022, all these issues surfaced in the matrix of public sphere.

President of Ethics Commission Prof. Matthias Kleiner maintains that our role was only to feed political decision making process by wise analysis of the situation by aiming at the well being of the society in the long run. Economic growth and social balance remain at their own place. Probabilities of assessment were based on assumptions of costs, design limits, investments in alternative technologies, human resources available in different technology fields and many other aspects of how climate change policies will take its turn.

It is necessary that society as a whole understands its goal and the ways in which these goals can be realistically attained. The test of vision of German government lies in the fact that how it creates responsible methods and mechanisms through which it can monitor the progress towards these goals. The report at the outset sets the mandate for the preparations in coming years for making Germany self-reliant in the energy sector in the context of phasing out of nuclear energy. It says, “Objective of securing Germany`s future demands a consistent, target-oriented and politically-effective monitoring process (analysis, evaluation, guidance) which the report on the approach and institutions describes in more detail.” Ethics commission expresses its belief in scientific excellence Germany has nurtured over the decades and thus appeals to think about ‘sustainable economic management’. It explains that Germany is already on the way to develop the alternative technologies and it will be in good position to harness those technologies to dispense the nuclear energy.

Question is, what are the inspirations and motivations behind this strong self-confidence. It draws its strength from planning reliability and technological competitiveness. It also indicates towards a stable strategy for investments in energy supply systems and energy efficiency as well as the provision of infrastructure.

Germany has envisioned energy future in following three pillars of sustainability; an intact environment, social justice and healthy economic growth. The kind of social changes envisioned in the framework of energy transition has been understood to be based on the strong foundation of democratic consensus. But this term of shutting down does not mean complete withdrawal because this technical term indicates a far reaching process. But this comes with the realization that restructuring of the energy supply will have negative effects on economic development, employment and for people on lower incomes.

Ethics commission derives its inspiration from the strong belief that objective of ecological compatibility stands alongside social equilibrium and economic efficiency for collectively achieving a future oriented structure for society. Putting forth the comprehensive integrated approach and our ability to imagine, report says, “Consequences in terms of the environment and health should be paid the same amount of attention as the cultural, social, economic, individual and institutional implications. Reducing the risks down to purely technical aspects would not fulfil the requirement for an integrated approach und comprehensive assessment. The approach also includes the basic principle that the burdens are not passed along to the general public, although this happens all too often, as can be seen in the example of climate change. Awe for the task and humility in one’s own thoughts and actions are essential. The central problem is not what can be imagined but what cannot.”

Eventually report makes case for democratic and open societies providing for more choices to its decisions in following words, “The discussion of the ethical positions presupposes that there are alternatives to choose from. The statement that there is “no alternative” to something is no longer accepted by the public. This is also true for the use of nuclear energy. The claim of a “lack of alternatives” undermines the confidence in open, parliamentary democracy. It is more the case that alternatives create freedom for making decisions. Also, alternatives will be available to a greater extent, the more decentralized and differentiated that the energy supply is structured. This increases the citizens’ opportunities to participate in the decision-making process and to get involved in cooperatives and other models, for instance, which enable them to organize their own responsibility themselves. This will strengthen the civic society.”

Risk assessment is based on following argument: “The starting point for the risk assessment is the reasoning that there can never be zero risk for large-scale technical installations and that the risks when using coal, biomass, hydro power, wind and solar power as well as nuclear energy are different but are comparable. As none of the energy options is risk free, the judgment for acceptability rests on a comparative assessment of the anticipated consequences of all available options on the basis of scientific facts and ethically-founded and mutually-agreed assessment criteria. This requires all of the risks and opportunities to be evaluated as well as is scientifically possible, whereby direct and indirect consequences over the whole lifecycle must be included. Alongside the scale of the consequences, the probability of them occurring must also be taken into account. In connection with the impact evaluation, the risks and opportunities must be weighed up against each other. Ethical considerations assist in making the most rational and fairest assessment possible. Lastly, it comes down to the political decision-making process, which determines which assessment criteria are weighted higher or lower.”

Other important elements discussed in this report are: consumer demand and citizen involvement, test criteria: environmental protection (debates and negotiations about climate change), security of supply(alternative technologies), economic viability and financial feasibility, social aspects of cost distribution, competitiveness, research and innovation, avoidance of dependence on imports.


In this background, let me share you what very timely article by former President A.P.J. Abdul Kalam explains by relating to it to German situation. He in a article in The Hindu says, 
"A few things need to be put in context here. The decision of Germany suits its current scenario which goes beyond mere concerns of risk posed by nuclear power. Germany is a developed nation, a power-surplus nation — so it can afford to lose a few plants. More important, Germany has completely exhausted its nuclear resources. Against a total demand of 3,332 tonnes (2006-08) it was able to produce only 68 tonnes (Note: This was the production in 2006) of Uranium, and for the deficit it was relying on imports. Thus, nuclear energy never fits into its goal of energy independence. India, on the other hand, is the leader of the new resource of nuclear fuel called Thorium, which is considered to be the nuclear fuel of the future.


We should be careful not to be carried away by the barrage of anti-nuclear news often being generated by many of the same nations that are enjoying the maximum benefits from it. The economically developed world has a well-trained habit of presenting their success in a distorted context to misguide emerging nations like India, which are a potential challenge to their neo-age proxy-imperial economic subjugation. What is needed for our India, we Indians have to decide." 

Innovation for Inclusive Development

The following three conditions are must for equitable growth. Successful and sustained growth requires learning societies. Open and democratic societies are more conducive for cultivation of learning society. Successful and sustained democratic society must be inclusive.

There are few beliefs which in recent times have collapsed. Failure of Washington consensus, exposure of flawed belief that markets are efficient by themselves and can regulate themselves and thirdly wealth and welfare trickles down to lower classes after initial progress of few elites. One thing is clear that Washington Consensus was not about ‘Development’.

In the current political economy which has brought us to this condition has served special interests. Some players have gained from privatization and others have gained from liberalization. It has to be asserted that what originally projected by Adam Smith ‘an invisible hand’ does not exists. We need ‘visible hand’ to understand all these developments. Things do not happen by themselves. Today`s status of global economy is express of excess of deregulation, flawed governance structure of financial system and systematic information asymmetry and huge conflicts of interests.

Today it seems that rule of law has been maintained to generate inequalities and maintain segregation. In this situation we need balanced role of government and market. Government has three major roles: Innovation, Catalytic and Development.  So, here single minded approach will not work. The concept of growth is much beyond GDP. It must be inclusive, democratic and should ensure well being of its citizens.

In today`s contexts, development is all about closing knowledge gap to meet the contemporary challenges of contemporary world. So it is not only about enhancing individual knowledge but also institutional, societal and organizational knowledge that contributes massively to the processes of the learning of society as a whole.

Here one thing must be made clear that markets are not efficient system which contributes to innovation. As Sollow has shown that technological change and not the capital accumulation was one of the major reason behind the massive economic transformation in the 20^th century. Thus diffusion of knowledge from developed to developing societies also paves the way towards absorption of knowledge, diffusion of knowledge, learning and innovation. Considering that knowledge as a public good, spillover and externalities help to change the situation enormously.

As Arrow showed us that markets do not yield efficiency on their own in production and dissemination of knowledge, it is very important to invest in non-market institutions which are capable of producing and disseminating the knowledge. As Thomas Jefferson said, “He who receives an idea from me receives [it] without lessening [me], as he who lights his [candle] at mine receives light without darkening me.”

Challenge for us is to promote growth through technological progress by focusing on efficiency, restricting intellectual property and designing development oriented IP policy. As IP attached marginal cost to public good thus also creates inefficiencies in the market. Understanding structure of learning in the economy across the sectors like labor, inventory control processes, computerization and financial services is very significant. Industrial or service sector can exhibit larger externalities. Innovation in advanced countries is actually directed at saving labor but abundance of labor in developing countries makes innovation efforts even more challenging. So, in these conditions innovation must be directed at preserving natural resources and developing successful technologies which can help us in sustainable development. Also, key fact is that innovation cannot be simply imported from north. We must have our own new model of innovation.

These innovation outcomes can only come if democracy is nurtured to cultivate the spirit of questioning authority. Sense of equality is essential in creating learning economy and society. Democratic processes help to build open and transparent societies. Non-inclusive growth wastes human talent. The political economy of inclusiveness and openness will certainly help to correct pervasive market failure and will prioritize the collective good.