New Hopes towards Greater Research Collaboration through progress in the Worldwide LHC Computing Grid

“Is Internet Looking towards future through the GRIDs having Silver Clouds of Transformation ?”


In the much awaited moments ahead of November 2009, Large Hadron Colider (LHC) in CERN (European Organization for Nuclear Research) was successful in channeling a proton beam in its accelerator after one year of gap in its operations. In parallel were the excited discussions about enormous progress been made about the potential of Worldwide LHC Computing Grid (WLCG) to transform Internet into more accessible, fast medium enabling voluminous data transfer and data sharing for collaborative exchanges of information leading towards greater capabilities in Scientific Cooperation across the borders.


Grid computing revolutionizes the way scientists share and analyses data by enabling researchers to share computer power and data storage over the Internet. Grid projects already help researchers search for new wheat genes, predict storms, or simulate the Sun’s interior. The 7000-odd physicists working on experiments at the Large Hadron Collier will rely entirely on grid computing, specifically on the Worldwide LHC Computing Grid, to connect them with LHC data. The computing centres providing resources for WLCG are embedded in different operational Grid organisations, in particular EGEE (Enabling Grids for E-SciencE) and OSG (the Open Science Grid), but also several national and regional Grid structures such as GridPP in the UK, INFN Grid in Italy and NorduGrid in the Nordic region.


The Enabling Grids for E-sciencE (EGEE) project is funded by the European Commission and aims to integrate current national, regional and thematic Grid efforts, in order to create a seamless Grid infrastructure available to scientists 24 hours-a-day, for the support of scientific research. LCG and EGEE are tightly coupled and provide complementary functions. OSG (Open Science Grid) is a U.S. distributed computing infrastructure for large-scale scientific research, built and operated by a consortium of universities, national laboratories, scientific collaborations and software developers. The OSG integrates computing and storage resources from more than 50 sites in the United States, Asia and South America. The OSG is supported by the U.S. National Science Foundation and Department of Energy's Office of Science.


The Globus Alliance involves several universities and research laboratories conducting research and development to create fundamental Grid technologies and produce open-source software. The WLCG project is actively involved in the support of Globus and uses the Globus-based Virtual Data Toolkit (VDT) as part of the project middleware.


During the development of the LHC Computing Grid, many additional benefits of a distributed system became apparent: (Courtesy-CERN) Multiple copies of data can be kept in different sites, ensuring access for all scientists involved, independent of geographical location. It allows optimum use of spare capacity for multiple computer centres, making it more efficient. Having computer centres in multiple time zones eases round-the-clock monitoring and the availability of expert support. There are no single points of failure. The cost of maintenance and upgrades is distributed, since individual institutes fund local computing resources and retain responsibility for these, while still contributing to the global goal. Independently managed resources have encouraged novel approaches to computing and analysis. So-called “brain drain”, where researchers are forced to leave their country to access resources, is reduced when resources are available from their desktop. The system can be easily reconfigured to face new challenges, making it able to dynamically evolve throughout the life of the LHC, growing in capacity to meet the rising demands as more data is collected each year. It provides considerable flexibility in deciding how and where to provide future computing resources. Also, it allows community to take new advantage of new technologies that may appear and that offer improved usability, cost effectiveness and energy efficiency.


Widely reported news that “The The Grid will revolutionaize the Internet” is clarified by CERN itself. They say: “Grid computing, like the World Wide Web, is an application of the Internet. When the LHC turns on, data will be transferred from CERN to 11 large computing centers around the world at rates of up to 10 gigabits per second. Those large centers will then send and receive data from 200 smaller centers worldwide. All this data transfer will take place over the Internet. Dedicated fibre-optic links are used between CERN and the large centres; the smaller centres connect together through research networks and sometimes the standard public Internet.” (1)


Going ahead to comment on speculation on unprecedented increase in capacity of internet in sharing and downloading capacity, CERN explains: “ First, in order to get such data-transfer rates, individuals would have to do what the large particle physics computing centres have done, and set up (or lease) a dedicated fibre-optic link between their home and the source of their data. Second, today’s grid computing technologies and projects are geared toward research and businesses with highly specific needs, such as vast amounts of data to process and analyse within large, worldwide collaborations. While other computer users may benefit from grid computing through better weather prediction or more effective medications, they may not be logging onto a computing grid anytime soon. (Something called “cloud computing”, where your programs are run in a central location rather than on your own computer, may also be on the horizon.) (ibid)


But scientists and engineers looking ahead towards the Grid for not only enabling sharing of documents and MP3 files, but also connecting PCs with sensors, telescopes and tidal-wave simulators. Though the task of standardizing everything from system templates to the definitions of various resources is a mammoth one, the Global Grid Forum (GGF) can look to the early days of the Web for guidance. The Grid that organizers are building is a new kind of Internet, only this time with the creators having a better knowledge of where the bottlenecks will be. Computers on the grid can also transmit data at lightning speed. This will allow researchers facing heavy processing tasks to call on the assistance of thousands of other computers around the world. The aim is to eliminate the problem experienced by internet users who ask their machine to handle too much information. The real goal of the grid is, however, to work with the LHC in tracking down nature’s most elusive particle, the Higgs boson. Predicted in theory but never yet found, the Higgs is supposed to be what gives matter mass. The latest spin-off from CERN (the particle physics centre that created the web), the grid could also provide the kind of power needed to transmit holographic images; allow instant online gaming with hundreds of thousands of players; and offer high-definition video telephony for the price of a local call.


Research Colloboration
The WLCG project is also following developments in industry, in particular through CERN openlab, where leading IT companies are testing and validating cutting-edge Grid technologies using the LCG environment. The CERN openlab is a collaboration between CERN and industrial partners to study and develop data-intensive solutions to be used by the worldwide community of scientists working at the next-generation Large Hadron Collider. These experiments will generate enormous amounts of data - 15 million gigabytes a year - and will require a globally distributed Grid of over 150 computing centres to store and analyse the data, with a computing capacity of more than 100,000 of today’s cores.




There is no question that scientific research over the past twenty years has undergone a transformation. This transformation has occurred as a result of new technologies leading to new methods of working, have accelerated the pace of discovery and knowledge accumulation not only in the natural sciences but also in the social sciences and arts and humanities. Research today is often critically dependent on computation and data handling. The practice has become known under various terms such as e-Science, e-Research, and cyberscience. Irrespective of the name, many researchers acknowledge that the use of computational methods and data handling is central to their work.



Advances in scientific and other knowledge generated vast amounts of data which need to be managed for analysis, storage and preservation for future re-use. Larger scale science enabled by the Internet, and other information and communication technologies (ICTs), scientific instrumentation and automation of research processes has resulted in the emergence of new research paradigms that are often summarised as 'data-rich science'. A feature of this new kind of research is an unprecedented increase in complexity, in terms of the sophistication of research methods used, in terms of the scale of phenomena considered as well as the granularity of investigation. (2)




e-Research involves the use of computer-enabled methods to achieve new, better, faster or more efficient research and innovation in any discipline. It draws on developments in computing science, computation, automation and digital communications. Such computer-enabled methods are invaluable within this context of rapid change, accumulation of knowledge and increased collaboration. They can be used by the researcher throughout the research cycle, from research design, data collection, and analysis to the dissemination of results. This is unlike other technological "equipment" which often only proves useful at certain stages of research. Researchers from all disciplines can benefit from the use of e-Research approaches, from the physical sciences to arts and humanities and the social sciences.




e-Research Technologies Supporting Collaboration
e-Research technologies support the research collaborations described above by introducing a model for resource sharing based on the notions of “resources” that are accessed through “services”. Resources can be computational resources such as high-performance computers, storage resources such as storage resource brokers or repositories, datasets held by data archives or even remote instruments such as radio telescopes. In order to make resources available to collaborating researchers, their owners provide services that provide a well-described interface specifying the operations that can be performed on or with a resource, e.g., submitting a compute job or accessing a set of data.




Computer-enabled methods of collaboration for research take many forms, including use of video conferencing, wikis, social networking websites and distributed computing itself. For example, researchers might use Access Grid for video conferencing to hold virtual meetings to discuss their projects. Access Grid and virtual research environments provide simultaneous viewing of participating groups as well as software to allow participants to interact with data on-screen. Wikis have also become a valuable collaborative tool. This is perhaps best demonstrated by the OpenWetWare website, which promotes the sharing of information between researchers working in biology, biomedical research and bioengineering using the concept of a virtual Lab Notebook. This allows researchers to publish research protocols and document experiments. It also provides information about laboratories and research groups around the world as well as courses and events of interest to the community.



Social networking sites have been used or created for research purposes. The myExperiment social website is becoming an indispensible collaboration tool for sharing scientific workflows and building communities. Such sharing cuts down on the repetition of research work, saving time and effort and leading to advances and innovation more rapidly than if researchers were on their own, without access to similar work (for comparison to their own). Other social networking sites such as Facebook have been adopted by researchers and extensions have been built to allow them to be used as portal to access research information. For example, content in the ICEAGE Digital Library can be accessed within Facebook. (ibid)




The Role of Databases for LHC Data Processing and Analysis:
Database services are required by the experiments’ online systems, for most if not all aspects of offline processing, for simulation activities as well as analysis. Some specific examples include for the PVSS Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) system, for detector conditions (e.g. COOL), alignment and geometry applications, for Grid Data Management (LCG File Catalog, File Transfer Service) and Storage Management (e.g. CASTOR + SRM) services, as well as Grid infrastructure and operations tools (GridView, SAM, Dashboards, VOMS). (3)



In late spring 2007 four high-energy physics (HEP) laboratories, The European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN), the Deutsches Elektronen Synchrotron (DESY), the Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory (FNAL) and the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center (SLAC), ran a user poll to analyze the current state of HEP information systems. The goal was to achieve a better understanding of the perceptions, behaviors and wishes of the end users of these information systems. The poll received more than 2100 answers, representing about 10% of the active HEP community worldwide. The poll showed that community-based services dominate this field of research with the metadata- only search engine SPIRES-HEP [1] being the primary information gateway for most scholars. Users also gave their preferences regarding existing functionalities like access to full text and to citation information, and a list of features that they would like to have in the coming years. The results showed that the scholars attach paramount importance to three axes of excellence: access to full text, depth of coverage and quality of content. (4)



Real challenging question being faced by LHC-CERN is “Can concept of cloud computing replace that of grids?”(5) Worldwide LHC Computing Grid (LCG)– has been established, building on two main production infrastructures: those of the Open Science Grid (OSG) in the Americas, and the Enabling Grids for E-sciencE (EGEE) Grid in Europe and elsewhere. The machine itself – the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) – is situated some 100m underground beneath the French-Swiss border near Geneva, Switzerland and supports four major collaborations and their associated detectors: ATLAS, CMS, ALICE and LHCb.




Running a service where the user expectation is for support 24x7, with extremely rapid problem determination and resolution targets, is already a challenge. When this is extended to a large number of rather loosely coupled sites, the majority of which support multiple disciplines – often with conflicting requirements but always with local constraints – this becomes a major or even “grand” challenge. That this model works at the scale required by the LHC experiments –literally around the world and around the clock – is a valuable In order to process and analyze the data from the world's largest scientific machine, a worldwide grid service – the vindication of the Grid computing paradigm.




Currently, adapting an existing application to the Grid environment is a non-trivial exercise that requires an in-depth understanding not only of the Grid computing paradigm but also of the computing model of the application in question. The successful demonstration of a straightforward recipe for moving a wide range of applications – from simple to the most demanding – to Cloud environments would be a significant boost for this technology and could open the door to truly ubiquitous computing. (ibid)

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References:

1) ttp://public.web.cern.ch/Public/en/Spotlight/SpotlightGridFactsAndFiction-en.html

2) Voss, A., & Vander Meer, E. (2009, September 7). Research in a Connected World. Retrieved from the

Connexions Web site: http://cnx.org/content/m20834/1.3/ )

3) Maria Girone, Distributed Database Services – a Fundamental Component of the WLCG Service for the LHC Experiments – Experience and Outlook, CERN Document Server, European Organization for Nuclear Research, (Email: Maria.Girone@cern.ch

4) R Ivanov and L Raae, INSPIRE: a new scientific information system for HEP, CERN Document Server, European Organization for Nuclear Research (E-mail: Radoslav.Ivanov@cern.ch, Lars.Christian.Raae@cern.ch)

5) J.D. Shiers, Can Clouds Replace Grids? A Real-Life Exabyte-Scale Test-Case, CERN Document Server, European Organisation for Nuclear Research (CERN) (e-mail: Jamie.Shiers@cern.ch)

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" Game of DNA replication, transcription, translation and recombination towards functional protein..."

Venkatraman Ramakrishnan, MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge, United Kingdom

Thomas A. Steitz, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA

Ada E. Yonath, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel

The Science Nobels of year 2009 of come with recognition of beautiful symphony of discoveries and inventions which lifted each other to understand mysteries of life so as to strengthen our capabilities for realising the dream of long life which is full of vibrant communication in the shrinking world of relationships and expanding world of social networking technologies.

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In the 200^th year of celebration of Darwin`s birth and 150^th anniversary of publication of ‘On the Origin of Specis’, the cross-collaborative and unrelented effort "for studies of the structure and function of the ribosome" have translated into Nobel. The three Nobel Prize Laureates in chemistry for 2009, Ada E. Yonath, Thomas A. Steitz and Venkatraman Ramakrishnan, are rewarded for mapping the ribosome –one of the cell’s most complex machineries – at the atomic level. The ribosome reads the information in messenger RNA, and based upon that information, it produces protein. Scientists refer to this as translation. It is during this translation process, when DNA/RNA language becomes protein language, that life reaches its full complexity. The knowledge that this year’s Nobel Laureates provide us with can thus be of substantial value for the development of new antibiotics.

In early part of 20^th century the majority of the scientific community thought that the proteins were the carriers of hereditary traits, since they are more complex than DNA. On 28 February 1953, James Watson and Francis Crick at the Cavendish Laboratory at Cambridge University, UK, assembled the pieces of the DNA puzzle. For several years they had tried to understand how the DNA molecule’s four nucleotides could be assembled into a three-dimensional structure.The scientific community then realized that the genetic code is contained within the nucleotide sequences on each of the strands. But questioned remained how?

One part of this question was answered by the scientists who won 2006 Nobel prize in Chemistry. He is credited for his fundamental studies concerning how the information stored in the genes is copied, and then transferred to those parts of the cells that produce proteins. Kornberg was the first to create an actual picture of this process at the molecular level, in the important group of organisms called eukaryotes (which, as opposed to bacteria, have well-defined cell nuclei). Mammals like ourselves, as well as ordinary yeast, belong to this group of organisms.

The truly revolutionary aspect of the picture Kornberg  has created is that it captures the process of transcription in full flow. What we see is an RNA-strand being constructed,  and hence the exact positions of the DNA, polymerase and RNA during this process.

Let us turn towards Symphony: The founding belief behind the development of different labs by John Szostak (one of the winners of Nobel Medicine 2009) is elaborated by himslef in these words: “We are interested in the chemical and physical processes that facilitated the transition from chemical evolution to biological evolution on the early earth. To explore these processes, we are trying to build a system that undergoes Darwinian evolution. Such a chemical system would concentrate on model of a primitive cell, or protocell, that consists of two main components: a self-replicating genetic polymer and a self-replicating membrane boundary. The job of the genetic polymer is to carry information in a way that allows for both replication and variation, so that new sequences that encode useful functions can be inherited and can further evolve....Such a system begin to evolve in a Darwinian fashion, potentially leading to the spontaneous emergence of genomically encoded catalysts and structural molecules.”

Moving to link next melody in symphony; One would not wonder why Ada Yonath was given The First European Crystallography Prize in 2000. She is strong-willed pioneer, no doubt! Often a ground-breaking discovery comes from a pioneer who investigates new uncharted territory.¹ In this case, that pioneer was Ada Yonath. At the end of the 1970s, she decided to try to generate X-ray crystallographic structures of the ribosome. At this time, however, most people considered that this was impossible. In X-ray crystallography, scientists aim X-rays towards a crystal of, for example, a protein. When the rays hit the crystal’s atoms they are scattered. On the other side of the crystal, scientists register how the rays have spread out. Previously, this was achieved by using photographic film, which was blackened by the rays. Today one uses CCD detectors, which can be found in digital cameras (and are a focus for the 2009 Nobel Prize in Physics). By analyzing the pattern of dots, scientists can determine exactly how the atoms are positioned in a protein.

Many people were skeptical of Ada Yonath’s vision. In 1980, she had already managed to generate the first three-dimensional crystals of the ribosome’s large subunit. This was a great achievement, although the crystals were far from perfect.

It would actually take another 20 years of hard work before Ada Yonath managed to generate an image of the ribosome where she could determine the location of each atom. Step by step, Ada Yonath got closer to the goal. Eventually, it was realized that the ribosome’s atomic structure could be mapped, and more scientists joined in the race. Among them were Thomas Steitz and Venkatraman Ramakrishnan.

In 1998, Thomas Steitz published the first crystal structure of the ribosome’s large subunit. It resembled a dim photograph, and had a resolution of 9 Ångström (one Ångström equals one tenth of a million of a millimetre). It was not possible to see individual atoms, but one could detect the ribosome’s long RNA molecules. This was a decisive breakthrough.

The role of the large subunit in the ribosome is primarily to synthesize new protein. To obtain a step-by-step image of the chemical reaction is very difficult, as it occurs at the atomic level and at a daunting speed. In a single ribosome, about 20 peptide bonds can be formed every second. Thomas Steitz managed to freeze different moments of the chemical reaction. He crystallized the large subunit with molecules resembling those that are involved in peptide bond formation. With the help of these structures, scientists have been able to determine which of the ribosome’s atoms are important to the reaction, and how the reaction occurs.


A fascinating property of the ribosome is that it seldom makes any errors when it translates DNA/RNA-language into protein language. If an amino acid is incorrectly incorporated, the protein can entirely lose its function, or perhaps even worse, begin to function differently. Venkatraman Ramakrishnan’s crystal structures of the ribosomes have been crucial for the understanding of how the ribosome achieves its precision. He is great example of how he traversed acrooss three fundamental sciences before moving to life long devotion to Structural Biology. Ramkrishnan, a Ph.D. In Physics from Ohio University, gratuate in Biology(University of California, San Diego) and later worked as post doctoral fellow in department of Chemistry in Yale University for four early years of his career.

Ramkrishnan shares his reflections about the challenges this research faced during the two decades starting from 80s.² The development of synchrotron radiation sources to provide intense beams of X-rays was crucial to provide sufficient signal from these weakly diffracting crystals. An other advance was the development of cryocrystallography as a general tool to minimize radiation damage from these intense X-ray beams , which was quickly adapted for data collection on ribosomal crystals. Advances in computing, detectors and crystallographic software were also essential. The unending efforts by scientiifc community are commended by Ramkrishnan in following word, “The high resolution structure of of 30S ribosomal subunit is significant for several reasons. It will allow the rationalisation in structural terms of four decades of biochemical efforts to elucidate the mechanism of protein synthesis.“ ³

An immediate consequence of the determination of the high-resolution structure of the subunits was the ability to determine the structures of complexes with antibiotics. The high resolution structures of ribosomal subunits have shed considerable light on specific aspects of ribosome function one of them being decoding and antibiotic binding. A large number of questions about translation still remain unanswered. These problems will require years of effort by the community to unravel. ⁴ Here I find it appropriate to mention the concluding lines of of Dr. Roger Kornberg from his acceptance speech of Nobel Chemistry 2006: “ Even as we celebrate, and savor this moment, the work goes on. I am reminded of some lines from the American poet, Robert Frost. During the long, arduous effort of the past 20 years, I often repeated these lines to myself. I view them as a kind of metaphor for science and our ongoing commitment to it.

The woods are lovely, dark and deep,
But I have promises to keep,
And miles to go before I sleep,
And miles to go before I sleep.”

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1THE ROYAL SWEDISH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES , Scientific Background on the Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2009, STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF THE RIBOSOME, 7^th Oct. 2009

2 V. Ramakrishnan, Heatley Medal Lecture, Delivered at the University of Manchester on 26 March 2008 & Biochemical Society Transactions (2008) 36, 567–574

3 Brian T. Wimberly, Ditlev E. Brodersen, William M. Clemons Jr, Robert J. Morgan-Warren, Andrew P. Carter, Clemens Vonrhein, Thomas Hartschk & V. Ramakrishnan; Structure of the 30S ribosomal subunit, NATURE, Vol. 407, Sept. 2000

4 ibid

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From Photophone of 19th Century =>The masters of light: 20th Century Ambassador of Collaboration, Networking and Communication in 21st Century !!!

Two Revolutionary Optical Technologies: "for groundbreaking achievements concerning the transmission of light in fibers for optical communication" + "for the invention of an imaging semiconductor circuit – the CCD sensor"

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Question for online poll on the sidelines of this year`s Physics Nobel announcements was asked is this: “Did you know that this question comes to you via glass fibre?” The mere words reflecting the kind of revolutionary character the invention Charles K. Kao gifted to this world ! He initiated search for and the development of the low-loss optical fiber presently used in optical fiber communication systems. On the other hand ‘The Sailer Man’ George E. Smith who submitted thesis of three pages to University of Chicago says that ideas of the charged couple devices actually came from his head when he was deleivering one lecture on invention. He even don`t remember exactly how many patents he held with his colleague Willard S. Boyle at Bell Labs in 60s , 70s, 80s. Willard S. Boyle and George E. Smith invented the charge-coupled device (CCD) presently used in many digital cameras and in advanced medical and scientific instrumentation.

These three who are recipient of this year`s Physics Nobel are the people who are responsible for shaping modern information technology to present stage. Kao’s discoveries have paved the way for optical fiber technology, which today is used for almost all telephony and data communication. Boyle and Smith have invented a digital image sensor – CCD, or charge-coupled device – which today has become an electronic eye in almost all areas of photography.

Underlying the historical feature of the Kao`s work Nobel Foundation says, “When the Nobel Prize in Physics is announced in Stockholm, a large part of the world receives the message almost instantly. At almost the speed of light, the highest of speeds, the message is spread around the world. Text, images, speech and video are shuffled around in optical fibers and through space, and are received instantly in small and convenient devices. It is something that many people have already come to take for granted. The optical fiber has been a prerequisite for this extremely rapid development in the field of communications, a development that Charles Kao predicted over 40 years ago.”

Kao worked for Standard Telecommunication Laboratories Harlow, United Kingdom and Chinese University of Hong Kong. Charles K. Kao was a young engineer at STL working on optical communication. Kao was born in 1933 in Shanghai, China, educated in Hong-Kong and graduated in Electrical Engineering in 1957 at University of London and got a PhD at the University of London in 1965. With the help of colleague Hockham whose work on the analysis of the effect of waveguide imperfections lead them to a thesis defended in 1969. They investigated in detail the fundamental properties of optical fibers with respect to optical communication.

Just around that time, Willard Boyle and George Smith radically altered the conditions for the field of photography, because film is no longer needed in cameras where the images can be captured electronically with an image sensor. The electronic eye, the CCD, became the first truly successful technology for the digital transfer of images. It opened the door to a daily stream of images, which is filling up the optical fiber cables. Only optical fiber is capable of transferring such large quantities of data that electronic image sensor technology yields.

100 years ago, G. Marconi and K.F. Braun were awarded the Nobel prize “in recognition of their contributions to the development of wireless telegraphy”. 50 years ago, electronic and radio communications were in rapid expansion. The first transatlantic cable was installed in 1956 and satellites would soon allow even better coverage. The first communication satellite was launched in 1958. Research in telecommunication concentrated mainly in shorter radio waves, in the millimeter range, with the aim to reach higher transmission speeds. These waves could not travel as easily in air as longer waves, and the research focused on designing practical waveguides. The invention of the laser in the early 1960s (Nobel Prize in 1964 to C.H. Townes, N.G. Basov and A.M. Prokhorov) gave a new boost to the research in optical communication. ¹ Previous use of optical fibres was limited to medical use for industrial manufacturing of instruments for gastroscopy and other medical uses.

Global communication, and in particular internet and long-distance telephony, is now based primarily on optical fiber technology. The main advantage of optical waves compared to radio waves is the high frequencies that allow high data transmission rate. Nowadays, several terabits per second can be transmitted in a single fiber which represents an increase by a factor of one million to what could be achieved fifty years ago with radio signal transmission. The number of optical fiber cables being installed all over the world is increasing rapidly. Fiber optics has also been important for a huge number of other applications, in medicine, laser technology and sensors.


Different schemes for color photography were also explored during the 19th century. G. Lippman was awarded the 1908 Nobel Prize in Physics for his color photographic process based on interference effects. W.H.F. Talbot invented in 1841, thus initiating modern photography, light sensitive papers containing silver salts for first obtaining a negative image and thereafter, through contact copying with another light sensitive paper, a positive image. He described also the steps necessary to develop the latent images formed in the papers. Several developments followed regarding the substrate used for the light sensitive layers. The idea to use emulsions (silver salts in gelatin) to create negatives was conceived around 1870 and the replacement of glass plates with a celluloid film around 1880. The roll of film was invented 1887 by a priest, H. Goodwin, and explored by G. Eastman. In 1888 the Eastman Kodak box camera for roll film appeared on the market. Different schemes for color photography were also explored during the 19th century. G. Lippman was awarded the 1908 Nobel Prize in Physics for his color photographic process based on interference effects.


Willard S. Boyle and George E. Smith were both at Bell Laboratories, New Jersey when they conceived the CCD device. The CCD is a metal-oxide semiconductor (MOS) device that can be used as a detector to record images in electronic form, and thus it offers a modern alternative to the photographic film. A CCD can record a scene by accumulating light induced charges over its semiconductor surface, and by transporting them to be read out at the edge of the light sensitive area. The invention utilized the properties of the then new MOS (Metal Oxide Semiconductor) technology to create an integrated and simple device to record and read out a scene. The read-out is similar to a fashion often referred to as a “bucket brigade” as it shifts arrays of information by successive site shift.

The hour long discussion between Boyle and Smith in 1969 led to an enormous development of practical and scientific instrumentation based on CCDs: digital cameras, medical devices and high performance scientific instrumentation, not least for astronomy and astrophysics. There are several important medical applications for CCD cameras, e.g. for the study of tissues and cells as imaging devices in microscopes or for the recording of cells and tissue. Digital photography has also revolutionized almost all image based medical diagnostic tools. A large application is found in endoscopy for inspections inside the body and for guidance during micro- or ‘key hole’- surgery. There are many types of endoscopes, e.g. based on single optical fibers, optical fiber bundles or in the form of capsules possible to swallow with built in light source, CCD sensors and wireless signal transmission.

Solid-state image sensors and digital cameras have changed the role of images in our society, since they give electronic signals, digits, which can easily be transmitted and treated. In science, the possibility of transferring and processing images digitally is a real revolution. Digital image processing is now a global commodity which enables, for instance, the best international expertise to be involved in crucial diagnostic and even surgical situations, through remote control and feedback through digital cameras. Furthermore the evaluation of large amounts of data (e.g. created in mapping the universe) can be spread to many groups and even to volunteers from the general public; and no doubt this dissemination will take place of course due to the grace of Optical Fibres invented by Dr. Kao.

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1 THE ROYAL SWEDISH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, Scientific Background on the Nobel Prize in Physics 2009, TWO REVOLUT IONARY OPTICAL TECHNOLOGIES, 6 October 2009

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"Abhi to main jawan hoon..." + "how chromosomes are protected by telomeres and the enzyme telomerase"

When Elizabeth Blackburn last visited India on a lecture tour, introductory note inviting for her lecture read: "Nehru Memorial Museum and Library: Award-winning biologist and professor at University of California Elizabeth Blackburn will speak on “Chromosome Ends and Human Health and Disease”, Teen Murti Auditorium, Teen Murti House, 4:30 p.m."After following this and her non-stop talk lasting above an hour, it was clear how she was successfull in radiating her energy in jargon-less presentation along with consistent enthusiasm to appeal girls and young minds to take a giant leap to study this area which ultimately marched towards Nobel of 2009.


Significance of the discovery made by Elizabeth H. Blackburn, Carol W. Greider and Jack W. Szostak can be guaged from the starting words of the press release: "This year's Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine is awarded to three scientists who have solved a major problem in biology: how the chromosomes can be copied in a complete way during cell divisions and how they are protected against degradation. The Nobel Laureates have shown that the solution is to be found in the ends of the chromosomes – the telomeres – and in an enzyme that forms them – telomerase." (http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/2009/press.html


This is the first time that two women are sharing the Nobel prize in entire history of Nobel prizes. The discovery is key in finding many answers of ageing and decay of immune system in cancer. As release further elaborates, "If the telomeres are shortened, cells age. Conversely, if telomerase activity is high, telomere length is maintained, and cellular senescence is delayed. This is the case in cancer cells, which can be considered to have eternal life. Certain inherited diseases, in contrast, are characterized by a defective telomerase, resulting in damaged cells. The award of the Nobel Prize recognizes the discovery of a fundamental mechanism in the cell, a discovery that has stimulated the development of new therapeutic strategies."


This award also reflects inspiring story of student and teacher sharing the hallmark of greatest glory in scientific acheivement. Carol Greider who is Proffessor of Molecular Biology in Johns Hopkins University and Genetics will be sharing prize with Szostak was graduate student of third co-winner Blackburn and she completed Ph.D. from California University, Berkeley.


The efforts directed at approaching path breaking solutions to cancers can be understood from her words: "To understand how telomere functions to provide chromosome stability and how telomerase might play a role in cancer, we generated a telomerase null mouse. Mice that lack the gene encoding the mouse Telomerase RNA (mTR) show progressive telomere shorting during successive breeding. The mice are viable for up to six generations although in the later generations there is severe reduction in fertility due to apoptosis in the germ cells. Crosses of these telomerase null mice to other tumor prone mouse models suggest that under some circumstances tumor formation can be greatly reduced when telomerase is absent. This suggests that telomerase inhibition may be a useful approach to cancer treatment." (http://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/pharmacology/research/greider.html)


Third legend in the group is Jack W. Sztostak in Department of Genetics & Molecular Biology at Cambridge St. A Ph.D. from Cornell University, this man is member of all premier acadamies like National Academy of Sceinces, American Academy of Arts and Sciences and New York Academy of Sciences.

"At the outset of his career, Szostak made pioneering contributions to the field of genetics. His discoveries helped clarify the events that lead to chromosomal recombination—the reshuffling of genes that occurs during meiosis—and the function of telomeres, the specialized DNA sequences at the tips of chromosomes. He is also credited with the construction of the world's first yeast artificial chromosome. That feat helped scientists to map the location of genes in mammals and to develop techniques for manipulating genes. " (http://www.hhmi.org/research/investigators/szostak_bio.html)

But a Nobel Prize–winning discovery in the 1980s by former HHMI President Tom Cech and Sidney Altman transformed Szostak`s research. This discovery demonstrated that RNA, the sister molecule of DNA, can catalyze certain chemical reactions inside cells, a job previously thought to be the exclusive domain of proteins. This new revelation about RNA's dual role suggested to some scientists, including Szostak, that RNA likely existed long before DNA or proteins because it might be able to catalyze its own reproduction. Their discovery made it easier to think about the origin of life. (life.http://www.hhmi.org/research/investigators/szostak.html)

Blackburn who is distnguished recipient of six honorary doctorates from renowned universities, not to mention the legendary awards and membership from across the world. Most importantly her research vindicates other scientist`s work focussing on potential of diet, exercise, stress reduction and other "lifestyle interventions" in reducing the risk of and reverse damage from coronary artery disease and stave off diabetes. She was consistently emphasising on this mind-body link now being fertile territory for prominent research scientists when she referred to her experience during the talk she delievered few months ago in India.
(Her major list of publications is available at http://cancer.ucsf.edu/people/blackburn_elizabeth.php.)


Fountain of Youth:
In a recent interview she says, "For now, the best defense is healthy living, she said. The goal should not be to live to 150 years old but to live well for 80 or 90 years. In an ideal world, people would protect their telomeres during the years they're normally susceptible to diseases of aging. Then they would "fall off the perch" and die, as genetically programmed, at 90 or even 100 years old. Scientists used to believe that everyone's telomere length shortened over time, the same way they used to think that brain neurons stopped growing in the elderly. But telomere length, while it does decline in general, fluctuates in individuals. Many older people have relatively long telomeres. Eventually she indicates towards a way where drugs will play a lesser role and study of our body's physiology should play a major role in enabling us to arrive at a age when we will sing "Abhi to main jawan hoon..." "(http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2009/01/02/CMBO14L1P9.DTL&type=health)

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Stars of This year`s Shantiswaroop Bhatnagar Prizes by CSIR

PIB reported late on 26^th Sept. 2009 about eleven scientist being selected for 2009 Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Prize for science and technology on the occasion of CSIR Foundation Day celebration here in New Delhi at Vigyan Bhawan. Their names discipline-wise are as under: Biological Sciences: 1) Dr Amitabh Joshi, Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research, Banglore, 2) Dr Bhaskar Saha, National Centre for Cell Science, Pune; Chemical Sciences: 1) Dr Charusita chakravarty, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, New Delhi, 2)Dr Narayanaswamy Jayaraman, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore; Earth, Atmosphere, Ocean & Planetary Sciences: 1) Dr S K Satheesh, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore Engineering Sciences: 1) Dr Giridhar Madras, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, 2) Dr. Jayant Ramaswamy Haritsa, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore; Mathematical Sciences: 1) Dr. Venapally Suresh, University of Hyderabad, Hyderabad; Medical Sciences: 1) Dr Santosh Gajanan Honavar, L V Prasad Eye Institute, Hyderabad; Physical Sciences: 1)Dr Rajesh Gopakumar, Harishhandra research Institute, Allahabad, 2) Dr Abhishek Dhar, Raman Research Institute, Bangalore.

The Bhatnagar Prizes are given to scientists below 45 years of age, for their outstanding scientific contributions made primarily in India during the last 5 years preceding the year of the Prize. The SSB Prize comprises a citation, a plaque and a cash award of Rs.5,00,000/- (Rupees five lakh only), and are given to the recipients by the Prime Minister of India.

How complex concepts in Physics like Quantum field theory and giant concept of string theory can be milked in two hours of great oratory and generate persistent curiosity in the young, old research scientists is reflected from the presentation of Dr. Gopakumar deleivered at Tata Institute of Fundamental Research on 7^th Sept. 2009. This year`s one of the winner of Shantiswaroop Bhatnagar award winner was there to present his passionate research as a part of commemorating birth centenary of Dr. Homi Bhabha.

At the outset he greatly focussed on principles of Physics embodying our ability to discern regularities amidst complex behaviour. This according to him, is remarkably capturable in precise mathematical language. Thus his belief in these principles seemingly able to continue to do so as we widen the scope of these laws though sometimes to do so requires conceptual and mathematical reorientation.

Jumping on the gravity, he tried to explain how gravity is the most ubiquitous force in nature. It is common knowledge that Newton’s law of gravitation the first “universal” law. However, he says, it has a certain range of validity and these laws break down under two different sets of extreme circumstances. What are these circumstances? “These are not applicable when objects move very fast (e.g. Pulsars) and also not relevant when the density becomes large (e.g. at the centre of galaxies).

Dr. Gopakumar further elaborated the evolution of the falsification of the Newton`s theories. Einstein succeeded in (partially) overcoming these limitations. His description of gravity applicable at high velocities (relativistic). It is also true for moderately high densities (e.g. neutron stars). This was accomplished this not just by tweaking Newton’s Law a bit. This as Dr. says radically overhauled the very framework for describing gravity. Einstein tied up the description of gravity with the geometry of space and time! Spacetime is no longer a passive stage for the drama of physical events. It becomes an active participant - responding to its contents.

He was teaching about ‘Gravity and Geometry’. Einstein’s theory is in a very different mathematical framework from Newton’s. In terms of a metric measurements of distance and curvature of spacetime; Einstein’s equations determine in terms of the matter/energy. This, remarkably enough, reduces to Newton’s law for low densities and velocities.

Then suddenly he introduced few doubts and questions like these: “Physical reality is QM’cal - classical measurables have statistical outcomes. Is spacetime a statistically averaged notion? How can we sensibly talk of quantum fluctuations of the metric? How do we reconcile Einstein’s picture with Quantum Mechanics? ” As he explains further, limitations of Einstein’s Law lead to the breakdown of Einstein’s description as you enlarge its scope again under two sets of limiting circumstances especially at very short (“planckian”) distances and at ultra-high densities. The equations themselves exhibit the breakdown - develop singularities.” Thus he manages to conclude that the need for a description that overcomes these limitations will be fulfilled by a Quantum theory of Gravity and scientists need Quantum. Gravity to investigate the birth of the universe or understand black holes.

Eventually Dr. Gopakumar names String Theory as ‘The Reluctant Radical’. Because String Theory originated as a “conservatively radical” modification of Quantum Field Theory(Q.F.T.) considering the Quantum dynamics of extended objects. This has to be understood in the context of delicately spun framework which is highly constrained - more so than Quantum Field Theory. String Theory showed early promise in addressing some of the difficulties QFT had with respect to gravity.

Recent interest in string theory is generated by variety of applications of theoretical insights scientists are getting. According to Suresh Kumar S., Scientist at NIIST , Trivendrum says¹ that the same string-theory concepts used to describe black holes can help explain the behavior of electrons in a superconductor or metal. It has been used for explaining the strong nuclear forces involved in a quark–gluon plasma, and has become a competitor for the more favored QCD theories. Multi-dimensional space, with the extra dimensions being coiled in the ordinary three dimensioned case. Under high energy conditions these express themselves. Holographic principle applies in the reverse situation of extension to cooler or less energy intense situations :information contained in a higher dimension can be embedded in lower dimension. Possibility of certain material configurations and compositions under particular conditions causing holographic effects as above is being studies, so that a higher dimensioned phenomenon is morphed onto a lower dimensioned domain.

For decades researchers have tried to wrest testable predictions from string theory, the leading candidate for a more fundamental understanding of the universe.² Now physicists say they have used one of the most sophisticated pieces of string theory to predict properties of the ultradense matter created in an atom smasher in Long Island, N.Y. If confirmed, however, the prediction would not offer evidence for string theory, which requires the existence of extra dimensions of space full of higher-dimensional stringlike objects and other widgets. Instead, it would establish that some of string theory's mathematics could be used to study the forces at work inside an atom's nucleus.

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1http://www.nature.com/news/2009/090719/full/news.2009.699.html

2http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=a-prediction-from-string-t

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Managing Urbanisation- Delhi Taking Lessons from Tokyo Metro: Planning Ahead of Expanding Cities

Learning about Japan`s way of "managing urbanisation in vastly populated and economically expanding cities" was a momentous experience today at second day of first Habitat Summit (Towards Alternative Urban Futures for India). Delivering a keynote address on “MAKING CITIES WORK FOR GROWTH” , Hiroto Arakawa, Senior Special Advisor, Japan International Co-operation Agency spoke in details about how Tokyo which accounts for nearly 25% of the population of Japan has established itself a model of urban transport across the world.


Managing urbanisation was biggest challenge ahead of Tokyo in the time during 1950s-70s. Government strategies were primarily focussed on sustainibility and inclusiveness. Solving congestion and reducing spatial disparity were the prime challenges in this process. By that time Tokyo-Yokohama and Osaka-kobe had emerged has leading twin cities dominating the Japanese rise lead by vibrant economic activities across the pacific coast. Due to the result of the development of these cities that Japan could become nation with second largest GNP after USA for quite a long time. How crucial these cities are to Japan is evident from recent celebration in Yokohama witnessed by me to mark the 150th year of opening of port of Yokohama to the entire world. Whole day Yokohama city was waiting for evening and when all the roads leading towards the main museum located near bridge of Yokohama port were perfectly congested to give you sense that really megacities while in time of celebration can really behave like ordinary cities. But Yokohama could survive that celebration by bringing in lakhs of commuters from Tokyo and other cities due to well meshed metro lines.


Tokyo`s population is 1.5 times that of New York but area is one third that of New York. Considering that London and Paris are much smaller than New York, Tokyo becomes the biggest Metropolitan region of the world. The vast numbers of commuters use the public transportation system at the same time each morning and evening, so railways must provide tremendous capacity to satisfy the demand. Postwar improvements in Tokyo’s railway network have involved continued effort and huge investments, creating a transit system with immense capacity (Table 3). Although the system can handle the demand, there is congestion at times but studies show that there is a limit to what can be done to alleviate this congestion. Integrated Spatial Development Plan of 1962 and New Integrated Spatial Development Plan of 1969 laid the foundation of creating urban policy and infrastructure resources necessary for the expansion of the metro service.


Government`s flexibility to award contracts to private railway developers accelerated the development of Tokyo city itself. Private metro construction companies initiated for large scale infrastructure development around metro station areas, social infrastructure like housing development recieved impetus by these private industries and not least these companies were instrumental in erecting the economical bus transport in the cities being developed around new metro stations. Subways became the focus of most new railway construction in metropolitan areas after second world war. Due to immense expensive subway development, companies borrowed money from local governments causing stalling of the work for many years. Around 1962 central government introduced new subsidy system to lighten the burden of the companies.


Real boost to Tokyo`s suburban metro development got in 1964 when Japan was responsible for successful completion of Tokyo olympics. This year Japan saw the emergence of fastest MagLev train 'Shinkansen' In all these developments, strong leadership role of central government is in addressing the fiscal space is central in solving the problem well before planning became. Once again optimising the role of central and local governments is the key as evident from the subsidies given to provate metro rail developers: one third is given by Tokyo Metropolitan Authority, one third is given by Central Government. The companies greatly increased the value of fixed assets used for non-railway businesses, and the value of their investment securities.


Average distance between two stations around Tokyo is around 0.6 miles. Metro expansion began when population density was low. Due to timely steps taken soon metro became centre of urban attraction and proved to be reason for business of profitability. More through operations linking subways, JNR lines, JR east lines, and private lines have been established since the 1960s in order to minimize the inconvinience for commuters changing trains and to reduce station congestion. Investment in Tokyo`s public transport recieves different types of assistance, reflecting the variety of different operators and conditions. Asistance include subway construction subsidies, low interest and interest free government loans to transport operators, subsidisation of interest payments by private railways and subsidies for new transport systems funded by fuel taxes. These days according to 2008 figures Tokyo Metro made sales up to the tune of $3.8 B out of which they could secure net profit upto $0.4 B.


The highlights of the session were the key points summarised by Prof. K.C. Sivaramakrishnan, Chairman, Centre for Policy Research. The points which are: (i) Whether we want to move people and goods, or move vehicles? (ii) About 20-60% of our country’s population still walks, (iii) Private cars still dominate the
urban mode of transport with 263 cars and 433 two-wheelers being added per day in 2003-04, (iv) the politics of road space allocation, (v) the politics of road space pricing, (vi) the politics of public and private funding where the tax system disfavours public transport, (vii) the politics of mass transit choices, (viii) the politics of route choices, (ix) Phase I of JNNURM: Where 15,260 buses will be brought in, but where is the space? and (x) the politics of real estate and city planning: With inter and intra-city implications. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
For Further Readings:
1.Haruya Hirooka, March 2000, The Development of Tokyo’s Rail Network, Japan Railway & Transport Review 23

2.Takao Okamoto and Norihisa Tadakoshi, October 2000, Rail Transport in The World’s Major Cities, Japan Railway & Transport Review 25
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Enthusing the legacy of Homi Bhabha in young scientists of India !!!

Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Mumbai recently conducted a four day Young Indian Scientists Colloquium to commemorate birth centenary of Dr. Homi Bhabha,founder of country`s nuclear energy programme and one of the greatest theoretical and applied research scientist India has ever produced.


Colloquium`s inaugural talk was by Mahindra Agrawal from IIT, Kanpur who elaborated on the principle of N being not equal to NP. The founding assumption behind this formula is that finding the correct solution may take a very long time when n is very large. On the contrary given the solution of the puzzle it is very easy to verify if the solution of the puzzle is correct. In many problems, finding a solution is far more difficult than checking the correctness of a given solution. This is understandable because discovering a solution is often much more difficult than verifying the correctness. This emphasis by Dr. Agrawal was in reference to the efficiency of omputational power of the modern processors some of which use algorithms in sequential manner. An algorithm being a set of precise instructions in terms of arithmetic, assignments and Boolean operations.


In majority of the computational exercises the time complexity of the sequential operations is principle hindrance in enhancing the efficiency of the operations. A problem with very high complexity of the order of 1000 power is extremely difficult to solve although it does not arise in practise. The core of this discussion lies in the belief that if P is equal to NP (P=NP) then “for all problems whose solutions can be efficiently verified, then the solutions can be efficiently generated too. This is fundamental problem in contemporary research in computer science facing these days.


The progress in current research in String Theory was highlighted by Mr. Rajesh Gopakumar from Harishchandra Research Institute of Allahabad. He started off with expressing the special characteristics of laws of physics which award us the opportunity to embody our ability to discern regularities amidst complex behaviour. Further laws of physics are remarkably capturable in precise mathematical language.


This talk highlighted the successive failures of Newtonian and Eienstienian frameworks in understanding the behaviour of bodies in very fast velocities, ultra-high density and very short Planckian distances. The previously discussed aspect of verification vs. success in generating solutions (N=NP) to the problem was underlined by Dr. Gopakumar by saying that “it is discouraging that ideas to solve the latest puzzles of String Theory and it`s reation to Quantum Field are subject to inadequacy of Newton and Eienstien`s frameworks.”


The hallmark of the Colloquium can be attributed to the presentation of Dr. Shubha Tole from Dept. of Biological Sciences, TIFR. She discussed about current efforts to understand how the brain is built? The building up of vertebral cortex which is responsible for psychological features of perception, language, learning, memory and finally cognition is very much at the core of realising the possibilities to answer the long vexed questions of what is the intelligence and common sense, how we form our intuitions, where exactly the connection between neurons is established to forge a concrete decision making arrangement etc.


The keen observation behind the belief to describe the commonality of the behavioural patterns being same across different systems. The crux of the talk was focussed on the question of what would happen if LhX2 mutant cells were sprinkled in a background of normal cells of the brain. This talk was really the indicator of how complex biological topic about cortex, neurons, axons and functioning of brain can be made enjoyable through proactive body language, engaging audience in multiple interactions probing their information level about the topic being discussed and energised approach of enthusiasm.


In another interesting talk about Liquid-liquid transactions and Anomalous properties of water, silicon and other tetrahedral liquids was delivered by Srikanth Shastry of Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Research, Bengaluru. The main theme of this research concerns about why do temperature and pressure matter when we talk about phase transition? How do the other phases of water arise like metastable states.


Water phase diagram reveals rich crystal ‘polymorphism’ and current research is trying to find out the various reasons associated with this phenomenon. For many positive reasons liquid-solid transitions work for better ways than anticipated. These coexistent lines are possible because they have same energy level. For success in getting fresh insight in the abnormal behaviour of water this free energy barrier need to be crossed. It is significant that liquid-gas coexistence line terminates at a critical point beyond which there is no distinction between liquid and gas.


Metastable state is basically where matter can exist in a state that is not the thermodynamically stable state. Such metastable states can survive for long times, but will eventually transform to the stable state, either on contact with the stable phase, spontaneously, or when “disturbed” in some way e.g. Nucleation. Research around metastability is focussed on what happens when coexistence line is crossed. It remains to be conclusively state that whether these metastable states are having finite time or not. In this respect four basic properties of liquid need to be studies in details. Properties are: density, coefficient of thermal expansion, compressibility, specific heat and many other properties show dynamic behaviour at low temperature.


Eventually talk summarised that an unusual transition between two forms of liquid water appears to be present, though not conclusively proved experimentally. Consistent (though not unique) explanation of many interesting observations in super - cooled water is being given. Computer simulation studies reveal existence of a liquid-liquid critical point. Other fascinating phenomena (protein glass transition, colloidal self assembly..) appear to involve some aspects of such a transition.


The colloquium culminated with the talk “The Elusive Neutrino” by Dr. Amol Dighe from Dept of Theoretical Physics, TIFR. The neutrinos needed to be studies as their enormous potential to reveal the secrets about the universe formation. They are found in nuclear reactors, in thermonuclear fusion in the corona of Sun, particle accelerators, cosmic rays, natural radioactivity, supernova i.e. stellar collapse etc. A neutrino which is thousand times lighter than electron and there has been no conclusive measurement about the physical properties of neutrino.


The role of neutrinos in stellar explosion was under investigation during Dr. Amol`s talk. If we could locate information about neutrino masses and mixing encoded in energy spectra of neutrinos; this combined with identification of neutrinos mass ordering either normal or inverted order can predict the supernova explosion hours before actual event. This is possible b y tracking the shock waves when still inside the mantle. The future of neutrino physics is concentrated in developing bigger and better detectors.


The eleventh plan of Government of India has envisaged foundation of Indian Neutrino Observatory near Mysore. Several groups belonging to different Universities and research Institutes in India are part of the collaboration working on the details of INO. The current proposal focuses on neutrino detection with static detectors, to be placed deep underground at a site close to Masinagudi in the Nilgiri mountains of South India.The research work in this direction will be based in Mysore. Dr. Dighe told that even if presently we are in a position to narrow down on hundred possible an excellent group of theorists making the physics case of INO strong, it is true that we need around 500 Physicists for this ambitious exercise. INO is an effort aimed at building a world-class underground laboratory to study fundamental issues in physics.


The primary goal of the laboratory is the study of neutrinos from various natural and laboratory sources. It is envisaged that such an underground facility will develop into a centre for other studies as well, in physics, biology, geology, etc., all of which will make use of the special conditions that exist deep underground. Apart from the scientific goals of INO, the laboratory itself will greatly enhance the development of detector technology and its varied applications.


Recent data from several neutrino detectors around the world, in particular, that from the Super-Kamiokande detector in Japan, and the Sudbury Neutrino Observatory (SNO) in Canada, seem to indicate that neutrinos not only have mass, but also experience flavour mixing. This leads to the phenomenon of neutrino oscillations that can then explain the discrepancy between theory and observation as seen in certain experiments. If correct, this will provide the first unambiguous evidence for physics beyond the so-called standard model of particle physics. The existence of nonzero neutrino masses has profound implications on fields as varied as nuclear physics, particle physics, astrophysics and cosmology. It is also important to note that with the observation of neutrinos from the core of the sun and also from the supernova SN1987A, a new window to the universe has opened up.


In future, neutrino astronomy is going to play a key role in our understanding of the universe. Most importantly, neutrino telescopes will allow us to look into the densest places of the universe which are completely opaque to optical astronomy. To exploit this emerging new area of observational neutrino physics, about two years ago, the idea to construct a neutrino detector at an India-based Neutrino Observatory (INO) was mooted.[1]


The first year of the project will be devoted to exploration, finalisation of designs, identifying the contractors, etc. The next two years will involve excavation of the tunnel and laboratory cavern. During the last two years installation of the laboratory equipment and detector construction will begin. The present road map envisages that the first module of the detector, 16 ktons, will start taking data at the end of five years. Immediately after that the subsequent modules will be constructed. This project is expected to be beyond 25 years of it`s functioning capacity.


This commemoration of the legendary scientist’s birth centenary marks the one more step in the direction of celebrating the ethos of scientific spirit represented by equally passionate interest he showed in music, literature, strategic thinking, administrative and bureaucratic acumen and above all belief that any Big science ultimately should benefit common men and women.


[1] NABA K MONDAL (2004), STATUS OF INDIA-BASED NEUTRINO OBSERVATORY (INO), Proc Indian Natn Sci Acad, 70, A, No.1, January 2004, pp.71–77